The black night of Gaza has no Morning

Israel and Palestine both got the mind of destruction. Nobody knows when this war will end. Every moment the people of Gaza running here and there in some hope of getting secure place.

Many missiles are unnecessarily used in order to destroy the resident of the people. Many school going children sometime believe they are watching war movies. but war is war . 

Nobody escapes from it. If we look at the crucial role of United Nation meaningless. Challenging the UN many Israeli military attacks with tanks and jet fighters plane. 

UN just pledging them not to fight. Thousands of people lose their lives. Many journalists who are reporting the crisis and conflict of Gaza crying seeing the pain of people. 

People aren't searching for hiding place but unable to get. Running here and there in some hope of lives they are just living.  People now get frustrated and saying the black night of Gaza has no morning.

photos from chinaasiadaily

HISTORY OF MAGAZINE IN NEPAL

Magazine

The magazine is a medium of mass communication which encompasses an area so broad as to improve virtually social, political and economic interests of contemporary man. The field is literally all embracing and includes periodicals that cover every phase of man’s social economical and cultural life. There is no doubt that much communication of ideas, information and attitudes among the people is carried on through magazines. There are hundreds of magazines ranging from the slick paper picture weekly with circulations in lakhs down to the small special interest quarterly with a circulation of a few thousand only.

The main aim of the magazine is to inform, entertain and influence its readers editorially. They also put before the readers advertising messages of national or regional scope. Generally, magazines are more national in outlook than local. Usually a magazine never appears more frequently that once a week. For this very reason the magazines have more to dig into problems and events in depth than the daily newspapers. Because of this the magazines have a better opportunity to bring events into focus and interpret their meanings.

There are so many types of magazines like consumer’s magazine, news magazines, business magazines, literary magazines, professional magazines, picture magazines, men’s magazines, women’s magazines, political magazines etc. As a mass medium the magazine is as much a journalistic enterprise as the newspaper, as it’s objective is not to offer hard news but rather entertainment, analysis and interpretations. 

Background

The evolution of magazine can be started in 1741 when Ben Franklin published general magazine. But Andrew Bradford published American magazine three days earlier than him. From mid nineteenth century the trend of specialized magazine is began. The concept of public sphere is developed by the Germany scholar that “magazine is a public sphere”(ordinary people can express their opinion). Magazines help to connect and correlate different aspect of society. Joseph R. Dominick classifies magazines into five main categories. They are general consumer magazine, business magazine, literary review and academic journal , news reader and public relation.

Magazine industry can be divided into three traditional components of manufacturing

a.      Production

b.     Distribution

c.      Retailing

After happening the new trend in magazine can be found. Like the concept new media, ubiquity, transmission and delocatedness. Magazine influence audience, variety and contents. The magazine changes its content as well as performance according to time. Magazine just like a warehouse in which various types of things are stored. Enormously the readerships grow more after the expansion of the railway. In 1828 the book stale are opened. It serves the interest of the people.

HISTORY OF MAGAZINE IN NEPAL

The history of Nepali magazine is begun with literary magazine. Sudhasgar is the first literary magazine of Nepal. Gorkhabharat jeevan is the first media publication in nepali language but it was published from Vanaras. It was a monthly magazine based on literature. It was printed in jeevan press, Banaras. It was owned by Ram K Barma himself. It is said that the result of that magazine is Sudhasagar. Sudhasagar is the second magazine in nepali language which was published in 1955 Bs. It was published and edited by pandit Naradev pandey, printed in pasupati press,thahiti, kathmandu. Inspired by Motiram Bhatta, but he couldn’t saw it due to his untimely demise in 1953 bs at the age of 30. How many issues and copies are published, it is unknown. Media historians Ram Raj Poudel and Grishma Bahadur Devkota also couldn’t see it. According to Shiromani Baburam Acharya, he had 4 or 5 copies of sudhasagar, but it lost in the debris of 1990’s earthquake. Some information adout sudhasagar was published as an ad. at the back cover page of a “Naulopakhyan” a book in 1956 from the same press, by the same person(Naradev and his friends). Then Sharada published in 1991 but it also cannot give new thing because it had literary content. Then in 1992 Udhyog, a business magazine came but it was closed in 1995. In 2004 Gharelu Ilam published which was also business magazine. Kathmandu Municipal published by kathmandu nagar samiti in order to give about the activities of them. Another literary magazine published called Shahitya Shrot. In 2005 Akha magazine was published which give information about eye. Likewise Shikshya magazine published, it was about education.

After 2007 to 2047 magazine weren’t published because of political reason. In 2047 Jana Mancha was published in bi-color. It contents were about political and social thing. The publication of this magazine was successful to bring some manpower. It was a general magazine but closed in 2054. Then in 2053 Kathmandu Today was published by Tikaram Pradhan. It was analytical based on contemporary newspaper it is also a general magazine. It helped to establish professionalism in the field of journalism. In depth reporting based stories were published by it.

Then in 2053 Bishwamitra, a general magazine was published by Shyam Groink who was a share owner of kantipur. In 2056 Himal khabarpatrika was published fortnightly,is that news magazine published by Himal Media. It was the one few news magazine in the northern half of the subcontinent which uses the liberal values of journalism to reach out to a vernacular audience. It has developed the choice following of both of the rural and urban intelligentsia maintaining credibility and an inclusive editorial voice. The publisher of this magazine is Kanak Mani Dixit and editor is Kiran Nepal. Likewise in 2057 Nepal fortnightly published. It was a general magazine. Then in 2060 Samaya Sapthahik was published in 2060. The trend of specialized is growth afther 2047. Before it magazine weren’t in specific topic. So many magazines come in specialized form like sports magazine, woman magazine, religion magazine, health magazine, business magazine and many more. Those magazines came in a particular topic to provide broad information about on specific subject. Like Nari magazine published those matter only related to women.

Restoration of democracy in Nepal 2046 BS was a landmark development creating a favorable environment for Nepalese magazine to grow. Journalists then were free to write article, news and views without any interference from the government. The constitution of 2047 guaranteed press and publication right under Article 13. According to provision no news item, article or other reading material shall be censored, no press a shall be closed or seized for printing any news item, article or other reading materials and the registration of newspaper or periodical shall not be canceled merely for publishing any news item article or other reading material. It was the first time, the right of press was guaranteed in the constitution in the history of Nepal. The provision made the press powerful than ever before. It created a conductive environment for investment in media and encouraged many young people to enter journalism. Before 2046, many journalists had been involved in mission journalism. They had no priority to publish magazines. But after 2046, it was easy to make huge investment because of financial security and journalist got opportunity to develop professionalism.

There was rapid increase of magazine during the decade it was the good symbol for Nepalese journalism. But there were other negative aspects in nepali journalism. Some publication stopped their papers due to lack of money and coordination among publishers. Patrica Satdine, Lokpatra, Spacetime etc were closed because of financial crisis. Shree Sagarmatha and Everest herald, Nayasadak were closed because of conflict among investors.    

[IMPACT OF MASS MEDIA]

[Impact of Mass media]

Advertisements published or broadcasted through various mass media directly or indirectly influence the consumption habit of the people of Mahadevstan V.D.C. And children are affected mostly, and mainly negative impact is as a result of advertisement.

Table of Contents

Structure of Report                                                           Chapter 1: Introduction                                                           Background                                                                                                                                   Mahadevstan V.D.C.:                                                                                                                      Introduction                                                                                                                                          Location & population

Chapter 2: Methodology                                                                                                                              Study Objectives                                                                                                                                 Research Design                                                                                                                                     Quantitative information                                                                                                                            Qualitative information                                                                                                                   Limitations & constraints

Chapter 3: Findings                                                                                                                     Effectiveness of medium                                                                                                                          Use of advertisement                                                                                                                                        The group most affected by advertisement                                                                           Positive side                                                                                                                              Negative side                                                                                                                                      The causes of the high and low impact of advertisement                                                                 1. Age group                                                                                                                                              2.Economic status of person                                                                                                       3.Education                                                                                                                                      4.Others

Chapter 4: Conclusions & Recommendations

Conclusions

Recommendation

Reference:

Chapter 1: Introduction

Background

       

In the European countries, the work of research is being very managed, systematic and scientific along with the increment of media effect. Research is widely being carried out in some of the Asian countries as well. In the context of Nepal, though the media research is not developed scientifically and managerially, the work has begun in this field.

History of Research in Nepal

The history of research in Nepal is not very old.  Nepal was not able to progress even in the field of media before 2007, during the regime of the Ranas.Though the Nepali media was in the phase of development in the year 2007 to 2017, it again faced the tragic end as soon as the Panchayat system came in rule in 2017 B. S. And again after the restoration of democracy in the year 2047, the work again began in the field of Nepali media and research.

Mass media scholars divide the development of Nepali mass media research in 4 phases.

1.       Before 2007 B.S

2.       From 2007 B. S to 2017 B. S

3.       From 2017 B. S to 2046 B. S

4.       From 2046 B. S till now.

We can know from the history that, in the 1963 Hem Hamal and an American citizen conducted a research on radio listeners. Similarly, we can find that Ram Raj Poudel did a research for a book in 2024B.S. In the same way, we can find that Lal Deusa Rai did a research on family planning and its effects in the decade of 1990.

This research is based on the study of effects of advertisement. We can find the timely researches done by the various private companies on the effects created by the advertisements. Some big and multinational companies do the research in order to find out the effectiveness before giving their advertisements in any mass media.

But very less research has been done on the aspects of the broadcasted and published advertisements. Furthermore we could not find the free media organizations doing research on this matter.

This research presentation is aimed to the study of the effects of the advertisements published and broadcasted. Now in the situation when the advertisement and media are like the two sides of the same coin, this research could be effective. In this research report prepared on the effect of advertisement, it includes the effect of advertisement, fact about the mostly effected group by the advertisement and the target audience or group of the advertisement.

Mahadevstan V.D.C.:

 Introduction

Mahadevstan V.D.C.lies in the western side of Kathmandu valley. It is about 10km west from the valley. It has the parts of Balambhu, Mata Tirtha and Satunggal at its east, parts of Thankot V.D.C and Mount Chandragiri at its west, Dahachowk V.D.C and parts of Thankot V.D.C at its north and parts of Gumalchowki and Chandragiri at its south.

This V.D.C is mainly inhibited by the people of Newar community. Then there is also the community of Chhetry, Brahman, Magar, Lama, Sarki, and Damai respectively. 

This V.D.C is in between 27°27’ to 27°49’ north longitude and 85°10’ to 85° 32’ East latitude. It is at the altitude of 4700 feet from the sea level.

There are police station, post office, health post, telecom office and other government offices in this V.D.C. Sagarmatha satellite centre which is considered to be very important for the Nepali communication and tele-communication also is in this village development committee.

Population & Other information

Mahadevsthan V.D.C.lies in election area no. 10 of Kathmandu district. There are 12 schools along with 2 government high schools in this V.D.C whose literacy rate is 59.38%.

More than 80% population of this locality is Hindus. The main occupation of the people living here is agriculture and horticulture. Very less number of people is engaged in job, and very few do business. The population of this V.D.C is 6546. The life of this village has been eased by the 2 cable network connections. There are around 700 telephone lines distributed in this V.D.C. Almost all houses have access to radio and television. The rate of migration into this V.D.C is, these days increasing as it is near to capital city Kathmandu. 

 Chapter 2: Methodology

Study Objectives

The main objective of this research is to find out the effects of advertisements published and broadcasted in various mass media in Nepal. The main objectives of this research can be presented in the following points:

Ø  To find out the effects of advertisements published or broadcasted in newspapers, radio or television

Ø  To find out the mostly effected group by the advertisements

Ø  To find out whether the advertisements give positive or negative effect on the receivers

Ø  To find out in which media will be much effective to give(publish/broadcast) the advertisement

Ø  To find about more or less effect of the advertisement.

Research Design

It is necessary to follow certain rules and design while doing the research. The main aim of this research is to find out how people of Mahadevsthan are using the mass media and what they are achieving from these medias. So in this research, we have used the observation method, interview method and questionnaire method to find out the effectiveness of advertisements in Nepal.

Quantitative information

For the population and the other situations of Mahadevsthan, the census of 2058 has been consulted or referred. Similarly we came to know about the how about of the people of various castes, religion, etc living there through the help of research done by the V.D.C itself.

And to find out about the media effects, certain designed questionnaire was prepared and 50 people (sample population) of all wards were asked to fill up that questionnaire. And the data collected from this very questionnaire method is taken as the base (main source) of this research.

Qualitative information

For the research it is necessary to know about various other related factors besides factual information. To find out such facts, various methods were applied.

1. Literature Review
2. Personal meeting and discussion
3. Observation

Limitations & constraints

As very limited source and materials were used to do the research, we could not reach to the depth though having many other places for the study. And in the same way time limitation also raised the problem.

Similarly we had to face the linguistic problem in the old villages of the Mahadevsthan V.D.C. During this research we had to face such limitations and constraints.

Chapter 3: Findings

Effectiveness of medium

During the research, we had given priority to find out advertisements published/broadcasted through which media is more effective. To the question “Advertisement of which media is much more effective?” in the questionnaire for the research, we got the following results from the answer.

Newspaper is effective-          30%

Radio is effective-                   16%

Television is effective-                        54%

Use of advertisement

During the research, we also tried to find out how much the people consume the daily used materials based on the advertisements published or broadcasted. On the question “How much do you use the materials of which you have heard/watched/read the advertisements of?”, and we got the following result from the answers ticked.

Less/Some                               68%

Mostly/almost all                    20%

Never/No                                12%

 Group Most Affected by Advertisement

It was seen that children are mostly affected by the advertisements. During the research some parents even said that advertisements have negatively affected their children. They also opined that these days the advertisements affecting the child psychology, like the attraction though various gifts have increased the rate of impression. And while filling the questionnaire too, they chose the children as most affected group.

In the question prepared during this research, it also asked “ In your family, which group or who is mostly effected by the advertisement?” We got the result as such:

Children                                  87%

Youths                                     13%

Old aged/elders                      0%

Positive side

To get to know about the new materials in the market is taken as the positive aspect of advertisement by the consumers. And some also opined that advertisements help in knowing the quality of the mass production. Some also opined that because of the increasing competition, audiences do not get cheated.  According to the cast of direct participants of this research, following were the positive sides found out:

1.      Get the information about the new products

2.      Easy to select the goods because of the increasing competition

3.      Can know the quality/standard of the product

Negative side

Almost all of the participants also opined that advertisements published/broadcasted also have the negative aspects as well. Almost all the participants we filled up the questionnaire, who are also the guardians, said that advertisements have been negatively affecting the children. And some others also said that it unnecessarily have been increasing the expenses of the people.

Major findings

During the research of the effects of the broadcasted/published advertisement, some important facts came out. In the research done on 9 wards of Mahadevsthan V.D.C,50 people, by filling up the questionnaire form, were the direct participant in the research. Similarly we also tried to find out the activities and opinion of many others through other methods like discussion, survey, etc. Following were the major finding of the research:

Effectiveness of the media: We found out that most people take the television as the most effective media. According to the people of Mahadevsthan V.D.C, television is the most effective media as we can both watch and listen to the advertisement in the television, and it helps in solving our queries like what, which, how,etc.

About the use: In the matter concerned to the use of goods on the basis of advertisements published and broadcasted, almost 20% said that they buy the goods on the basis of the advertisements they hear, view or read. While 68% said they consume very little because of the advertisement. And rest 12% said that no advertisements influence them in any ways.

Mostly affected or influenced group: Almost all people said that advertisements have influenced the children to the most and furthermore, basically negatively. After that, according to the participants, youths are influenced. 

Positive aspects: To get to know about the new materials in the market is taken as the positive aspect of advertisement by the consumers. And some also opined that advertisements help in knowing the quality of the mass production. Some also opined that because of the increasing competition, audiences do not get cheated.

 Negative aspects:  Almost all of the participants also opined that advertisements published/broadcasted also have the negative aspects as well. Almost all the participants we filled up the questionnaire, who are also the guardians, said that advertisements have been negatively affecting the children. And some others also said that it unnecessarily have been increasing the expenses of the people.

Causes of High and Low Impact of Advertisement

1.      Age group

We came to realize that age group plays a very vital role in deciding whether the reader, viewer or the listener of the advertisement consume the goods being advertised or not. Like, advertisement attracting the children turned out to be effective, and also the youths were seen attracted by the advertisements of latest fashion, film, etc. So we can also say that advertisement in the mass media also depends on their target audience.

2. Economic status of person

Similarly, the consumption of goods being advertised also depends upon the economic status of the readers, listeners or viewers of the advertisement. We found that though being highly influenced by the advertisements they could not consume the desired things because of their poor economic condition.

3. Education

Another thing affecting the effectiveness of the advertisement is the academic status of the user of mass media. During the research, the educated participants said that it is harder to believe in the advertisement at once whereas the uneducated believed highly in the advertisements.

4. Others

Besides the above mentioned factors, other factors affecting the effectiveness of advertisements were also seen.

Ø  It was found that if the same advertisement is published/ broadcasted, it’s less effective.

Ø  To impress all or to reach the heart of all the consumers, the pictures shown and sound/voice used also needs to be effective/ impressive.

Ø  It was also found that advertisements with jingle were in the mouth of people, they know it by heart.

Chapter 4: Conclusions & Recommendations

Conclusions    

Following are the conclusions drawn after the study of media impact in the Mahadevsthan V.D.C:

Ø  The effectiveness of the advertisement depends also on the nature of communication media. Like, television is found to be more effective than radio and newspapers.

Ø  The range of influence by the advertisement depends also on the age group, education status, etc.

Ø  Generally children are affected by the advertisement.

Ø  The presentation of the advertisement is also the factor influencing the effectiveness of the advertisement.

Ø  If the same type of advertisement is used for long span, it also lessens the effectiveness of the advertisement.

Recommendations

Eventually, after keeping these facts in mind, it is necessary to be informed, alert and cautious while publishing or broadcasting the advertisements. It also should be pre-judged well about what nature or kind of advertisement should be published or broadcasted in which media.

Ø  In respect to effectiveness, it was found to be effective to broadcast the important advertisements through television.

Ø  After television, radio was found to be more influencing to the old and newspaper to the youths. So it was found that it is effective to design the advertisement keeping in mind the target audience.

Ø  While publishing or broadcasting the advertisements, children were found to be effected mostly. So we can say that it is necessary to do the study on the effect that may be done on the child psychology before designing the advertisements.

Ø  It may cause negative effect on the people if they are not able to consume the essential advertised material though being highly influenced by the advertisement, or though the advertisement turns out to be very effective. So advertisement should be given in the program in such a way that it is also affordable by the target audience of the very program.

Reference:

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Ø Mass Communication Theory, Uma Narula

Ø Professional Journalism, M. V. Kmath

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piece of novel

ओहो सुत्न कति गाह्रो भएको । धेरै थकाइ लागेपछि निन्द्रा पनि भाग्दो रहेछ । कम्ता हो १७ किलोमिटर पो हिडेको । भोलि पनि बस पाइन भने त जान्न । के के सोच्दै थिए झ्याप्पै निदाएछु । भोलि बिहान सबेरै उठ्न सकिएन । आमा बिस्तारामै आएर सिरक फालिदिनु भयो ।
कराउँदै भन्नुभयो,‘ हैन आज तेरो क्याम्पस छैन ।’
मैले केही हसिलो पारामा भने,‘आमा क्याम्पस त कल्ले बोकेर लानिहोर होला नि जहाँको तही ।’
बुवालाई घर नै थर्किने गरी रेडियो नबजाई कत्ति चित्त बुझ्दैन । मलाई भने कत्ति मन पर्दैन । कुरा यति मात्र होइन धेरै मिल्दैन । खाने कुरा देखि लगाउने कुरामासम्म बाउ छोराको कुरा मिल्दैन ।
क्याम्पस जानैपर्छ । यसै पढ्नुपर्छ उसै पढ्नुपर्छ त्यसो भएपछि किन टार्नु ।
ब्याचलर दोस्रो वर्षको भर्खर पढाइ सुरु भएको थियो । क्लास रमाइलो थियो । केटाहरुको कुरै नगरुम् । क्याम्पसमा पढाइ होस नहोस् तर केटाहरुको जम्काभेट भएन भने त्यो दिन नै खोस्टा लाग्ने गथ्र्यो ।
बिस्ताराबाट उठेर एकैचोटि क्याम्पस जाने तयारी हुने गरेका थिए दिनहरु । क्याम्पस जानका लागि धन्न धन्न १५ किलोमिटर पार गर्नुपर्छ ।
बस पाए त राम्रै हो तर चलेको रैन्छ भने बिजोग हुने गथ्र्यो ।
देशमा संक्रमण कालको अवस्था थियो । कहिले तेलको हाहाकार त कहिले बन्दको बन्द ।
बन्दको बेला क्यापम्स पनि बन्द हुन्थ्यो खासै टेन्सन थिएन तर तेलको हाहाकार हुदाँ बस कम चल्ने गर्थे जसले गर्दा ठेलमठेल गर्दै जान आउने गर्नु पथ्र्यो ।
क्याम्पस जानका लागि छोरो तयार भयो । ऐनमा कपाल कस्तो छ भनेर हेर्ने गर्थे तर कपाल कार्ने काम कलेज जान थालेपछि छोडेको थिए ।
१ किलोमिटर हिडेपछि बस स्टेशन पुगिन्थ्यो । बस स्टेशनमा केही छिटो पुगे सिट पाइने थियो नत्र ठडिएको ठडियै गर्नुपथ्र्यो ।
सबैलाई हतार हुन्थ्यो । बस स्टेशनमा कहिल्यै छिटो पुगेको रेकर्ड छैन । भाग्यले साथ दियो भने कहिले काही सिट फेला पथ्र्यो कि त छतमा गइन्थ्यो । प्रहरीहरु पनि सन्का पाराका थिए कहिले छतमा चडेको देखे ओराली दिन्थे त कहिले वास्तै गर्थेनन् । वास्ता नगरे त ठिकै थियो तर सन्किए भने खलेलाई कुरा मिलाउनको आपत पथ्र्यो ।
बाटोमा चिनेका मानिसहरुलाई सोध्ने गर्थे बस चलेको छ कि छैन भनेर । चले ठीकै छ नत्र के को ।
बस चलेको रहेछ । आज कलेज चाडै पुगिएला जस्तो छ । यत्तिकैमा विवेक मोटरसाइकलमा देखियो ।
कराउँदै भन्यो,‘ ओइ मुला यता हेर कता जान लागेको ।’
उसलाई देख्ने बित्तिकै मेरो खुसीको सिमा रहेन । बाइकमा आजको यात्रा हुने भो ।
विवेकको बाइकमा चढ्न त सजिलो तर उसले अघि गरेका दुर्घटना देख्ने हो भने कोही पनि उसको बाइकमा चढ्न रुचाउँदैनन् ।
हस्पिटलको बेडमा त धेरै पटक सुतेको छ यो । तर बाइक चलाउन पनि छोड्दैन र लडाउन पनि छोडेको थिएन ।
उसको जहिले पनि भन्ने गथ्र्यो, “अरु ीहड्दा लड्छन् म मोटरसाइकल चलाउँदा ।”
बाटोमा खासै केही अनौठो दृश्य देखिएको थिएन । उसलाई गफ गर्न निकै मनपथ्र्यो । त्यो पनि केटीको । यो साल कोही भगवान्ले समय लगाएर बनाएका केटीहरु हाम्रो क्याम्पसमा पठाउनु नि । भगवान् आफुलाई चाँहि संसारमा एक चाहिने । कहिलेकाही कुनै मानवजातिको भलो होस् भनेर तथास्तु गर्नु नि ।
मैले झिजो मान्दै भने केटीको होइन बरु बाटाको ख्याल राख । अघिल्लो महिना मेरो नयाँ पायट फाटेको बिर्सिस । बाइक चलाउँन नआउनेले किन चलाउँनु क्या ।
विवेक सन्किदै बोल्यो, ‘हेर त पछाडि बसेको छ मस्त केटीहरुको दर्शन गरेको छ तैपनि खोक्छ मुला ।’
थप्दै भन्यो, ‘त्यति खेर त त्यो केटीले गर्दा पो लडेको । त्यसलाई त्यहाँपछि देखेको पनि छैन भेटुम न अनि देखाइदिन्छु स्कुटर कसरी चलाइन्छ भनेर ओइ मुला त्यो मसित डराएर यो बाटो हिड्नै छाडि क्या हो ।’।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।।क्रमश

Advertising Regulation

Should advertising be regulated? It is major issue in those countries where proper advertising system have not yet developed. Some say advertising if not regulated, the consumers and the general public could be victims of false advertising claims and misleading and exaggerated advertisements. This has resulted to specific sins; some controls have been made in advertising. However, the shabby practices led to a gradual erosion of the ancient principle of caveat emptor (let t he buyer beware) toward one caveat venditor (let the seller beware) - that is toward regulation. So, advertisement must be truthful at any cost.

          “The general tendency is that the people believe advertising makes people buy things they do not want,” this is why some people think it needs to be regulated. The advocates of regulation on advertising charge that it propagates stereotypical images to false claims and also to those like children who do not have mutual capacity to distinguish fact from a sales pitch. Similarly, some ads tend to be vulgar and obscene and unsuitable for viewing by younger audiences. But the major reason for advertising to be regulated could be because of unfair and unethical advertising and its effects and also to ensure fair practices.

          Whatever the claims could be some restrictions are made for both advertisers and agencies to do business. [2] Regulation could range form allowable language in legal and financial advertisements to size and placement of outdoor signs. But advertising throughout the world has been regulated through variety of systems:

·       Law and regulations of legally constituted bodies.

·       Media control over the type of advertising acceptable for publication or broadcast.

·       Self-regulation by advertisers through their own codes of conduct.

          Advertising is also controlled indirectly through lobbying of consumers or business group as well as from taxation of certain types of advertising. In countries like Denmark, Norway and Sweden, consumer ombudsman applies the laws regulating advertising and persuades advertisers to comply with both national law and codes of International Chamber of Commerce.[3]

          Federal, state, and city governments have passed legislation restricting advertising in various ways in the United States. The Supreme Court of the United States has overturned some restrictions, however, ruling that advertising is protected under the free speech provisions of the First Amendment to the Constitution, although to a lesser extent than political speech. In a landmark 1976 ruling, Virginia State Board of Pharmacy v Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, the Court declared advertising to be a semi privileged form of free expression, subject to some regulation. In the Virginia case the Supreme Court struck down a ban that prohibited pharmacists from advertising drug prices. The ruling removed bans that had applied to other professionals, such as physicians and lawyers, and enabled them to advertise their services.[4]

          In the United States the main government regulatory agency for advertising is the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). The FTC enforces a variety of consumer protection laws to eliminate ads that deceive the consumer. The FTC defines deceptive advertising as any ad containing a misrepresentation or omission harmful to the consumer. An advertisement does not have to be untrue to be deceptive.

          The key to the FTC's regulation of advertising is its power to require that advertisers substantiate the accuracy of their claims. So if advertisers say that "tests prove" or "physicians recommend," they must be able to show test results or affidavits from doctors. Moreover, companies cannot misuse evidence.

          Products that can affect health receive special regulatory attention. The U.S. Congress banned cigarette advertising from radio and TV in 1971 under the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act. In 1998 the tobacco industry and the attorneys general of 46 states agreed to ban outdoor cigarette advertising and the use of cartoon characters in advertising, a practice that many thought had encouraged young people to start smoking.

          Advertising directed to children has received considerable scrutiny. In 1990 Congress passed the Children's Television Advertising Practice Act. Among other things, it set limits on the amount of advertising that could be included in children's television programming and barred hosts of children's shows from selling products.

          State laws and enforcement bureaus impose additional regulations on certain types of advertising, particularly those involving contests. These regulations may differ from state to state. Consequently, advertisers planning a national contest through newspapers may have to prepare several different versions of an advertisement to comply with the varying laws. In some states the media are themselves regulated.

          The advertising industry has resorted to self-regulation in a serious effort to stop abuses before they occur. These self-imposed codes of ethics and procedures aim principally to curtail not only bad taste but also misrepresentation and deception in copy and illustrations, as well as derogatory and unfair representations of products of competitors.

          Several advertising trade associations are concerned with maintaining high standards. The associations believe it is good public relations to do so, inasmuch as advertising that weakens public confidence damages the impact and influence of all advertising.

          Individual media and media groups often establish their own codes of ethics. Some newspapers and magazines refuse to publish advertising for tobacco and alcoholic beverages; most of them, in varying degree, investigate the reliability of advertisers before accepting their copy. Some publishers have strict rules about the presentation of advertising to prevent the publication of false or exaggerated claims and to preserve the aesthetic tone of their publications.

          Radio and television stations generally try to investigate the company and its product before broadcasting advertising messages that might cause unfavourable reactions. The networks and the National Association of Broadcasters have established codes regulating the advertising of medical products and controlling contests, premiums, and other offers. All the networks maintain so-called acceptance departments, which screen both commercial and non-commercial scripts, either deleting or challenging for substantiation any questionable material. Most magazine publishers have their own strict rules on acceptance of advertising copy.

          The American Advertising Federation, an organization of leading national advertisers, has long campaigned for “truth in advertising.” Other organizations that promote ethical standards are the American Association of Advertising Agencies and the Association of National Advertisers. The Institute of Outdoor Advertising encourages its members to improve the design of their advertising posters and signs and, more importantly, to make sure they do not erect advertising billboards in locations where they will mar the landscape or otherwise offend the public. The best-known and most active watchdogs in the advertising field are the Better Business Bureaus, which bring pressure to bear on unethical advertisers through persuasion, publicity, or, in extreme cases, legal action. The fact that local and national bureaus are subsidized by both advertisers and media reflects the conviction of modern business management that “good advertising is good business.”[5]

          Likewise, in Great Britain government department advertising is organised by Central Office of Information which appoints agencies for different campaigns. Legal control of British ad falls into two areas: a) common and private law areas and b) stautue law areas. Under Advertisements (Hire Purchase) Act 1967 any advertiser is expected to be familiar with the laws of defamation, contract, copyright, trade descriptions and fair trading and so on. Advertising ethics comes under the purview of the Advertising Standard Association (ASA) and the Code of Advertising Practice Committee. Radio and television ad is also controlled by a similar but more extensive Code which is included in the Independent Broadcasting Authority Act 1973 so that its strictness here has the force of law.[6]

          The Indian Advertising is also governed by three categories of law: the constitutional law, the Indian Penal Code and Criminal Procedure Code (1973) and the legislation which are related to press. The Indian advertisement are controlled by different Acts of the country like Drugs and Cosmetics Act, 1940; Drugs Control Act, 1950; Drugs and Magic Remedies Act 1954; Copyright Act, 1957; Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958; Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954; Pharmacy Act; Prize Competition Act, 1955; Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950; Consumer Protection Act, 1986; Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition)Act, 1986, AIR/Doordarshan Code; Code of Ethics for advertising in India issued by the Advertising Council of India; Code of Standard in relation to the advertising of medicines and treatments; Standards of practice for Advertising Agencies.[7]

          The description on regulation on above countries in the world quotes on regulating advertising and what kind of laws effect the adverting and why advertising must be regulated.

5. Regulating Advertising in Nepal

There is no specific law relating to advertising in Nepal. Advertising is affected by the relevant constitutional provisions, governmental administrative and regulation and self regulation of the industry itself.

          As advertising is directly related with the media, to see the legal provision in the country, it is necessary to observe the provision on press provided that by the constitution. The earlier constitution of Nepal introduced in 2004 BS (1948)[8], the interim constitution in 2007 BS (1951AD), Constitution of Kingdom of Nepal-2015 BS and Constitution of Nepal 2019 BS (1962), had endorsed freedom of press as fundamental rights of the people. The provision in the constitution can also be interpreted for advertising in the country.

          However, the first prototype code was promulgated in the form of a decree (Sanad) issued by Prime Minister Dev Sumsher J.B. Rana to guide the operations of first official newspaper ‘Gorkhapatra’. The decree set limits what were not to be printed and gave freedom to what should be printed for public knowledge. This was for the first time advertising was prioritized through the decree published in 1958 BS. It states “advertise useful facts for all”(Duniya lai Hunya Istihar……) [9] , this shows advertising has also been prioritized during the initiation of Gorkhapatra. 

          The constitution of the kingdom of Nepal-1990 has the provision in the Article12, which says all citizens have freedom of opinion and expression. Likewise, Article 13 provided the Press and Publication Rights to all the citizens and has guaranteed pre censorship in any of the written matters shall not be allowed unless it undermines the sovereignty and integrity of the Kingdom of Nepal, or which may jeopardise the harmonious relations subsisting among the people of various castes, tribes or communities; or any act of sedition, defamation, contempt of court or incitement to an offence; or on any act against which may be contrary to decent public morality and behaviour.  The provisions in the constitutions even though does not have clear provision for advertising, it has enough room that can be interpreted by the lawyers which also relates to advertising.

          Likewise, all the advertising agencies to work within the country have to be registered as service industry at Cottage and Small Scale Industries Department, Commerce Department. It is regulated by Company Act 1958 and Cottage and Small Scale Industry Act 1963.

          The Press and Publication Act 1991 (2048), in its Section 14 and 15 have the provision that any publication should not bring hatred to the king and the royal family in any form, undermines the sovereignty and integrity of the Kingdom of Nepal, or which may jeopardise the harmonious relations subsisting among the people of various castes, tribes or communities on any act against which may be contrary to decent public morality and behaviour. Likewise, Section-15 has the provision that publication of notice on the specific subject, incident or related to any area can be published within the time limited that it can be published and should be authorized and ordered to have it published.

          The National Broadcasting Act 1992 has regulated radio broadcasting media for advertising in radio in the broadcasting through its Section 14 and 15. Section-14 has scheduled specifically provided for access to radio broadcasting time for advertising but it also has the provision for banning advertising of goods related to tobacco or alcohol drinks on the ground of public health. Section-15 of the Broadcasting Act have the provision that cannot be advertised which bring hatred to the political parties, obscene materials, remove the elected government using the agitating force, bring incitement and fear among the citizens, speaking against the non-aligned character of Nepal and materials that may jeopardise, insult the harmonious relations subsisting among the people of various castes, tribes or communities are not allowed to have them broadcasted. Likewise there are laws that relate to the content of broadcasting, which also can be associated with advertising because the broadcasters are required to ensure compliance in anything that is put On Air. 

          Cinematograph Act 1969 (amended in 1990) has regulated in the production of movies, its exhibition and distribution business. There are also laws that directly relate to advertising but it is also affected by the general limitation on the content of messages, under different laws from copyright to the Public Offences laws. The Defamation and Libel Act- 2016 in Section 6 has the provision for punishment if published any materials which have libellous character. Likewise, Nepal’s Copyright Act -2022 have clearly mentioned advertising through any media to audience, about the creative work showing the writing belongs to others is a punishable act.[10]

          There is also law that would require the Press Registrar to make information available on circulation etc. to advertisers upon payment of a certain fee; this could help advertisers to make media decisions, depending on of course the reliability of the information so provided. There are also laws governing general business such as Contract Act 2056 and Patent and Trade Mark Act 2020, where advertisers would have to abide by. Also the laws that affect commercial broadcasting also affect advertising and so do laws relating printing and packaging, where they exist. Also laws to control gambling and money lending affect advertising Advertisers may face both ‘civil’ and ‘criminal’ actions for violating law.[11]

          Advertising is also affected by Consumer Protection Act 2054 which states information on the product and service can be provided to the consumers. The information must be truthful on the quality of the product and service. Likewise, the Children Act 2048 also has the provision that the children should not be posed negatively in the media. In accordance to the Medicine Act, Nepal Medical Council (NMC) has framed a Code of Conduct to regulate advertising. The Code of NMC says it is unethical to solicit patients “directly or indirectly by a physician, by groups of physicians or by institutions organisations”. Also self advertisement of the physician is incompatible to the principles and is allowed to use 18×14 inch size signboard and write their names.

          Also Nepal Bar Association has framed a Code of Conduct for Lawyers in 2051. It says that for the commercial purpose advertising on the legal firm must not be done. Also it has the provision of punishment if violated; the punishment can range to the cancellation of the registration of the firm or the lawyer.

          Advertising are also regulated through the Directives on Advertising of the government owned media. Gorkhapatra Corporation Advertising Directive-2053 (amended 2057); Radio Nepal Advertising Directive-2060 and Nepal Television Commercial Directive-2059 (amended 2061) also have the legal base on the types of advertisings that could be published by those government media. The government has banned the advertisements related to alcohol and tobacco products in the electronic media since 2055BS. However, the advertisement of alcohol and tobacco have picked up in the newspapers and in the hoarding boards of the capital and other parts of the city.

          The Code of Conduct for the Journalist also affects the advertising, the Journalist Code of Conduct 2003 has clear provision for advertising in Section-4, sub-section 12 stating “Not to present advertising in the form of news”. It elaborates neither to present an advertisement as news nor to refute news by way of advertisement; and a communication media shall generally refute news published and broadcast in another media.

          Other lesser media like hoardings, leaflets, and mobile media are also used and are governed by laws related to print and electronic. The management of hoarding board and banners and posters and wall painting in the public area is now handled by the concerned municipality. 

          There is also legal provision in advertising expenses in Nepal. Finance is the key factor that controls the amount that the firm is capable of spending for a creative activity of advertising. Here advertising budget depends upon the government rule (Act). For the tax purpose prior to 2049 BS any company, industry, profession, vocation and business incurring expenses for advertisement and entertainment should not exceed 2 per cent and 1 per cent of the gross profit. After the introduction of Industrial Act 2049, the government changed the rules of spending on advertisement expenditure under the Industrial enterprises Act 2049; any industry incurring advertising expenditure can deduct up to 5 per cent of the gross income. Any other similar expenses shall be allowed to be deducted while assessing the taxable income. [12]

6. Advertising Policy 

Even though advertising in Nepal lack Advertising Act and regulations, but other laws related to mass media, consumers act, copyright act, defamation and libel, contract act etc. affects the advertisements published in the media. Looking over to the historical development of media in the country, advertising has been a neglected subject. It is not that no works have been made to develop advertising business in the country. Timely, provisions on advertising are mentioned in the government policy while media issues are raised. Until the restoration of democracy in the country in 1990 AD, advertising issues were not so far discussed, even the history of media in Nepal is as century old and establishment of advertising agency is nearly approaching 50 years. Some steps are also taken by the government to develop advertising in the country.

          The government formed Press Commission on 29^th Magh, 2014(1957) for the first time, under the chairmanship of Justice Shree Krishna Prasad Chapagain. The report suggested that, “Newspapers need to be given government advertisements of government offices, departments and secretariats.”

          In 1971 (2028BS) New Communication Plan arrived with the motto for communication development, stress role of media in national development and provides for points system of evaluation and categorization of private newspapers. Communication Plan-1971 deals with policy, decision, and programme has provision related to advertisement for Radio Nepal and Gorkhapatra Corporation. It has emphasized to produce commercial programmes through radio to earn revenue; advertisement is identified as one of the source of revenue. It has focused on the foreign advertising agencies and businessman to advertise in Radio Nepal largely making contacts to Indian Advertisers. The plan has also focused study on the quantity of radio sets in the country and import radio sets. It has set the language standard for advertisement where the use of Nepali and English were allowed. The policy also states that the commercial programmes can not be broadcasted at any time in the morning and till 9 o’clock in the evening. Likewise the commercial programmes can only be broadcasted after the completion of afternoon and evening programmes.

          The plan for Gorkhapatra Corporation pronounce that advertising and the news policy needs amendment and to increase the number of pages of the newspaper. Likewise the plan also states to charge the fee of government advertisement according to rule set forth and Advertisement Department will look to all sort of advertisement in the newspaper.[13] Similarly, National Communication Policy and Programmes of HMG appeared in 1988. A 30-page documents for the first time, recognises importance of regular audiences survey and recommends them but the policy for advertising was also limited to the government organisation only.

           National Communication Policy-1992 enclose policies relating to advertisement. The Communication Policy has clearly stated to provide government advertisements to private newspapers on the ground of its regularity and classification. Also manage the environment to provide the government and semi-government industry’s advertisement to the private newspapers those classified. This provision would also work for the monthly, bi-monthly, tri-monthly and the literary newspapers.

          The Policy-1992 for Radio Nepal and Nepal Television discourages the advertisement of alcohol and tobacco. Likewise, for the quota of advertisement and newsprint the press council would work for auditing and circulation until the associated publisher, advertisers and the advertising agency are not involved in classifying the published newspapers. [14]

          No separate policy have been framed for advertising till 2001, the earlier policies for advertising were acquainted with government media and lack professionalism, it also ignored private organization. So, timely the association for advertising agency AAAN[15] had demanded for clear policy for advertising. The bulletin of AAAN-2055 has clearly raised the issue for National Advertising Policy as slogan for the advertising agency. [16]

          The market of the advertising has increased according to the research paper published by IIDS[17] in 1996 AD said that the advertising between 1972-1986 AD, the expenses on advertisements rose by 7 times from 0.4 billion to 3.2 billion. As the advertising market was and is increasing after the liberalization of economy, need of separate advertising policy was the demand of the time. During the period AAAN suggested 11 point proposal for national policy on advertisement business in 1999 AD[18]. Finally, separate advertising policy appeared in 2001. Under the Long-term Policy of Information and Communication-2001, the government introduced Long-term Policy for Advertising.

          This is first nation wide advertising policy introduced by the HMG. The Long-term Policy for Advertising is divided into two sections. The first part deals with the aim and objective and second deals with policy and programmes. The aim and objective of the policy-2001 is to develop advertising business as national industry, and to manage and enhance national economy. It also aims for impartial and free press and identify advertising as the main source of revenue. Likewise, the final aim is to make advertisement affective through inspection of use of language, style and cultural aspect.

          The Policy and programme have altogether 28 points; the proposal of AAAN has also been accepted. The policy and programmes deals with clear specification of the right and responsibilities of all parties of an advertisement and draw up a national advertisement code of conduct that is in line with the constitutional provisions and national values and ethics. To introduce the policy recognising advertising agency be associated directly or indirectly with advertising association and also recognise advertising business as service industry entitled to all the facilities. The entry of multinational advertising agencies will have to provide 20 per cent domestic share compulsory and use of Nepali labour and creation for its development.

          There is also programme to set up an independent body to monitor the electronic media (audio-visual), digital media, foreign advertisement, and also establish impartial, representative, free censor board. Registration of newly advertising agency would be based on the uniform criteria through the recommendation of recognised advertising association. Set up advertisement subject in the academic curriculum from school and in the training institute and also adopt nationalistic approach in advertisement production through standardization of the language for advertisement, which should uphold Nepali character. It has also divided advertisement into commercial and social responsible. The policy deals for the legal management of advertisements of product through trade mark and copyright; also it promotes advertising through internet.

          The policy is negative towards exaggerated advertisement of the product that directly affects the health of the consumers like foodstuffs, medicines and liquors etc., for publication and broadcasting these advertisements needs consent from the authority and also re-evaluate the ban on alcohol and tobacco in electronic media according to World Health Organization (WHO) standard.

          To categorize advertising agency in four types according to capital investment, yearly transaction, number of staffs, relation with different media and infrastructure. The policy also discourages the foreign content to be dubbed in Nepali language, and also to determine the rate of advertisement of films, documents and social welfare and commercial ads. Likewise, manage the outdoor advertisements and stop the wall painting and wall poster advertisement. The policy also facilitates to provide advertisements to the newspapers and electronic media according to their classification, the advertisement would also be provided to private media that could be quarterly, monthly, bi-monthly, tri-monthly and half yearly on same ground of classification. The government ads would be provided through the Department of Information.

          Also the government would manage the ads from foreign sole distributors in Nepal to publish through the national media targeting the domestic audience; the policy also supports the local media with providing ads. It has clearly stated that any publication and broadcasting media should not exceed advertisements to 40 per cent of total contents of the publication and broadcasting. The policy also states that any industry or firm, organisation should spend 5 per cent of the total profit in advertisement.

          The National media policies of 1971, 1988, and 1992 have been framed in the view of the requirement of national mass media organisation and hence the documents scarcely bear a provisional or local perspective. This explains the imbalance in the distribution of resources and chronic absence of district and community-based media initiatives. The above advertising policies are only limited to government owned media and only a statement have been endorsed to provide advertisements to the private media in accordance to classification. The media policy also lacks in thinking about developing the advertising as an industry. IIDS research report states that private sector press are at a disadvantage from the viewpoint of getting the share of advertisement revenue, since the three largest government media- Gorkhapatra Corporation, Radio Nepal and Nepal Television- bag almost whole bulk of the advertisement revenue leaving very little for the private sector press.

          Even today the total bulk of advertisement belongs to the government. So, to properly manage the advertisement in the country, the government announced the Long-term Communication Policy 2001. This policy in comparison to earlier policies has unique character, but the policy remaining only as a document is the tragedy. The policy included 90 per cent of suggestion recommended by AAAN, however lack of law in advertising has made the policy ineffective said Bhaskar Raj Karnikar, chairman of AAAN.[19] In fact it is truth, nothing so far has happened from the formation of laws to the development of uniform code of conduct.

7. Argument on Advertisement[20]         

 The above regulations and policies in the country directly or indirectly affect advertising. But lack of Advertising Act has resulted to major advertising debate. The use of language and the theme of content, sometimes the sentences or the words are debatable and those controversial commercials have also been banned.

          Many advertorials published and broadcasted have brought controversies some examples are: The advertising produced by Ministry of Health the ad on condom (Jhilke Dai! Cha Chaina Condom) was banned stating that the ad language is not accepted by Nepali culture. The words Jhilke Dai were removed and was broadcasted then, but now this ad is stopped. The advertising of washing soap O.K and Puja; both their advertising undermined the product to show their product as best, this unhealthy competition of product advertisement was broadcasted several times on Nepal Television which was against the advertising policy of NTV. It cannot be denied that this kind of advertisement will not be published in the coming up days. Unless there is any complain on advertisement of a product, the publicity continues in the media in the present day. No one is there to monitor in this kind of issue, this is why censor board is needed. 

          Some advertisements published in the newspapers are deceptive; especially educational institute’s guarantees for excellence on computer hardware in a much stipulated period, also some advertorials guarantees to make people perfect in English language in a month, which is totally false.

          Also use of children in advertisements has proliferated to advertise the product of noodles, chocolates, biscuits, oil etc especially for the edible product, without thinking of the psychological aspect of children. Also use of women in the advertisement with the traditional concept of domination is shown in Nidhi Tea ad.

          Like wise the use of sensational terms are found in the products; like ‘a friend in hard times’, ‘there is no better way to relax’, ‘what can satisfy more than virgin’. The ad of Virgin whisky tells nothing more than to attack virgin girls, which can easily corrupt the youths.

          These kinds of advertisements are the commonly used in the Nepali media; also use of ad meant to broadcast in television is used for the radio, what it portrays to the listeners, it is matter of research. This kind of ad will bring no impact to the listeners or rather mislead them and is entirely contrary to the system of choosing media. So, it is necessary to check the advertisements published and broadcasted in present day through regulation or be self-regulated.

9. Challenges and issues

After the decade of 1990s, advertising has become a growing industry. The investment in the advertising sector has also increased. But still the Nepali advertising faces challenges for its development. The major challenges and issues are:

i)                  Lack in legal and ethical guidelines for advertising agencies and the private media.

ii)               Impact of foreign advertisements.

iii)                        Lack special monitoring sector.

iv)                        Impact of advertising in the content of news.

v)                           Lack in government advertisements to the local newspapers.

vi)            Advertising Agencies still depend upon 15 per cent commission provided to them by the media organisation.

vii)                     Lack in advertising educational institution.

viii)                  Lack proper execution of the out-door advertisement policy.

ix)                        Lack awareness in people about the advertisements exposed to them.

x)               Lack proper functioning of Audit Bureau of Circulation (ABC) to tell about the circulation of newspapers.

xi)            Lack research in advertising.

xii)         Industries have closed down due to Maoists problem, so advertising is facing hardship.

          So, if the advertising industry is to prosper in the country, the above mentioned bottlenecks should be considered.

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[1] Defleur, Understanding Mass Communication, pp.323

[2] Binod Bhattarai and Lal Deosa Rai- Advertising and Public Relation,  pp-163. Nepal Association of Media Educators with Support of DANIDA, 2002

[3] Ed. P Kharel, Media Issues in Nepal –pp. 64. Nepal Association of Meida Educators with support form FES, 2001.

[4] Encarta Encyclopaedia-2003

[5] Encarta Encyclopaedia- 2003

[6]Ed. P Kharel, Media Issues in Nepal –pp. 65. Nepal Association of Media Educators with support form FES, 2001.

[7]Ed. Venkat Iyer, Mass Media Laws and Regulation in India- 2^nd edition. AMIC, 2000

[8] The constitution of 2004 could not come into practice.

[9] Devkota, Nepal Ko Chhpakhana Ra Patrakaritako Itihas, pp-55, Sajha Publication, 2024BS.

[10] See Copyright Act-2022, Clause-6, sub-clause-15,d

[11] Binod Bhattarai and Lal Deosa Rai-Advertising and Public Relation –- pp.163. Nepal Association of Media Educators with Support of DANIDA, 2002

[12] Tulsi Ram Pokhrel, Thesis- Prospects on Advertising in Nepal, Tribhuwan University.

[13] Nepal Press Council, Prakashan Ko Digdarshan, pp- 166- Fourth Edition-2056

[14] Nepal Press Council, Prakashan Ko Digdarshan, pp- 176-193- Fourth Edition-2056

[15] AAAN- Advertising Agency Association Nepal, is an association of group of ad agency established in 2047BS.

[16] See AAAN bulletin-2055

[17] (IIDS)Institute for Integrated Development Studies, ‘Mass Media and Democratization’,1996.

[18] Tulsi Ram Pokhrel, Thesis- Prospects on Advertising in Nepal, Tribhuwan University.

[19] Himal Magazine; pp-46. 29-14 May 2003

[20]Himal Magazine; pp-44-45. 29-14 May 2003.